Geoffrey J. Gordon is a professor at the Machine Learning Department at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh and director of research at the Microsoft Montréal lab. He is known for his research in statistical relational learning (a subdiscipline of artificial intelligence and machine learning) and on anytime dynamic variants of the A search algorithm. His research interests include multi-agent planning, reinforcement learning, decision-theoretic planning, statistical models of difficult data (e.g. maps, video, text), computational learning theory, and game theory. Gordon received a B.A. in computer science from Cornell University in 1991, and a PhD at Carnegie Mellon in 1999.
Avizo (software)
Avizo (pronounce: 'a-VEE-zo') is a general-purpose commercial software application for scientific and industrial data visualization and analysis. Avizo is developed by Thermo Fisher Scientific and was originally designed and developed by the Visualization and Data Analysis Group at Zuse Institute Berlin (ZIB) under the name Amira. Avizo was commercially released in November 2007. For the history of its development, see the Wikipedia article about Amira. == Overview == Avizo is a software application which enables users to perform interactive visualization and computation on 3D data sets. The Avizo interface is modelled on the visual programming. Users manipulate data and module components, organized in an interactive graph representation (called Pool), or in a Tree view. Data and modules can be interactively connected together, and controlled with several parameters, creating a visual processing network whose output is displayed in a 3D viewer. With this interface, complex data can be interactively explored and analyzed by applying a controlled sequence of computation and display processes resulting in a meaningful visual representation and associated derived data. == Application areas == Avizo has been designed to support different types of applications and workflows from 2D and 3D image data processing to simulations. It is a versatile and customizable visualization tool used in many fields: Scientific visualization Materials Research Tomography, Microscopy, etc. Nondestructive testing, Industrial Inspection, and Visual Inspection Computer-aided Engineering and simulation data post-processing Porous medium analysis Civil Engineering Seismic Exploration, Reservoir Engineering, Microseismic Monitoring, Borehole Imaging Geology, Digital Rock Physics (DRP), Earth Sciences Archaeology Food technology and agricultural science Physics, Chemistry Climatology, Oceanography, Environmental Studies Astrophysics == Features == Data import: 2D and 3D image stack and volume data: from microscopes (electron, optical), X-ray tomography (CT, micro-/nano-CT, synchrotron), neutron tomography and other acquisition devices (MRI, radiography, GPR) Geometric models (such as point sets, line sets, surfaces, grids) Numerical simulation data (such as Computational fluid dynamics or Finite element analysis data) Molecular data Time series and animations Seismic data Well logs 4D Multivariate Climate Models 2D/3D data visualization: Volume rendering Digital Volume Correlation Visualization of sections, through various slicing and clipping methods Isosurface rendering Polygonal meshes Scalar fields, Vector fields, Tensor representations, Flow visualization (Illuminated Streamlines, Stream Ribbons) Image processing: 2D/3D Alignment of image slices, Image registration Image filtering Mathematical Morphology (erode, dilate, open, close, tophat) Watershed Transform, Distance Transform Image segmentation 3D models reconstruction: Polygonal surface generation from segmented objects Generation of tetrahedral grids Surface reconstruction from point clouds Skeletonization (reconstruction of dendritic, porous or fracture network) Surface model simplification Quantification and analysis: Measurements and statistics Analysis spreadsheet and charting Material properties computation, based on 3D images: Absolute permeability Thermal conductivity Molecular diffusivity Electrical resistivity/formation factor 3D image-based meshing for CFD and FEA: From 3D imaging modalities (CT, micro-CT, MRI, etc.) Surface and volume meshes generation Export to FEA and CFD solvers for simulation Post-processing for simulation analysis Presentation, automation: MovieMaker, Multiscreen, Video wall, collaboration, and VR support TCL Scripting, C++ extension API Avizo is based on Open Inventor 3D graphics toolkits (FEI Visualization Sciences Group).
Democratization of technology
Democratization of technology is the process by which access to technology rapidly extends to an ever-broader audience, especially from a select group of people to the average public. New technologies and improved user experiences have empowered those outside of the technical industry to access and use technological products and services. At an increasing scale, consumers have greater access to use and purchase technologically sophisticated products, as well as to participate meaningfully in the development of these products. Industry innovation and user demand have been associated with more affordable, user-friendly products. This is an ongoing process, beginning with the development of mass production and increasing dramatically as digitization became commonplace. Thomas Friedman argued that the era of globalization has been characterized by the democratization of technology, democratization of finance, and democratization of information. Technology has been critical in the latter two processes, facilitating the rapid expansion of access to specialized knowledge and tools, as well as changing the way that people view and demand such access. A counter argument is that this is just a process of 'massification' - more people can use banks, technology, have access to information, but it does not mean there is any more democratic influence over its production, or that this massification promotes Democracy. == History == Scholars and social critics often cite the invention of the printing press as a major invention that changed the course of history. The force of the printing press rested not in its impact on the printing industry or inventors, but on its ability to transmit information to a broader public by way of mass production. This event is so widely recognized because of its social impact – as a democratizing force. The printing press is often seen as the historical counterpart to the Internet. After the development of the Internet in 1969, its use remained limited to communications between scientists and within government, although use of email and boards gained popularity among those with access. It did not become a popular means of communication until the 1990s. In 1993 the US federal government opened the Internet to commerce and the creation of HTML formed the basis for universal accessibility. === Major innovations === The Internet has played a critical role in modern life as a typical feature of most Western households, and has been key in the democratization of knowledge. It not only constitutes arguably the most critical innovation in this trend thus far; it has also allowed users to gain knowledge of and access to other technologies. Users can learn of new developments more quickly, and purchase high-tech products otherwise only actively marketed to recognized experts. Social media has also empowered and emboldened users to become contributors and critics of technological developments. Some have argued that cloud computing is having a major effect by allowing users greater access through mobility and pay-as-you-use capacity. The open-source model allows users to participate directly in development of software, rather than indirect participation, through contributing opinions. By being shaped by the user, development is directly responsive to user demand and can be obtained for free or at a low cost. In a comparable trend, arduino and littleBits have made electronics more accessible to users of all backgrounds and ages. The development of 3D printers has the potential to increasingly democratize production. Generative artificial intelligence tools have the potential to democratize the process of innovation by improving the ability of individuals to specify and visualize ideas. The democratization of artificial intelligence refers to the transition from AI as a high-cost, specialized field to one accessible to non-experts and smaller organizations. This process is driven by the release of open-weights models, the availability of cloud computing for model training, and the emergence of no-code development platforms. While early AI development was concentrated within Big Tech firms and elite research universities, the 2020s saw a proliferation of public tools like ChatGPT and repositories such as Hugging Face, which lowered the technical barriers to entry. However, the trend has faced criticism as the "illusion of democratization," as the underlying GPU hardware remains concentrated among a few global providers. == Cultural impact == This trend is linked to the spread of knowledge of and ability to perform high-tech tasks, challenging previous conceptions of expertise. Widespread access to technology, including lower costs, was critical to the transition to the new economy. Similarly, democratization of technology was also fuelled by this economic transition, which produced demands for technological innovation and optimism in technology-driven progress. Since the 1980s, a spreading constructivist conception of technology has emphasized that the social and technical domains are critically intertwined. Scholars have argued that technology is non-neutral, defined contextually and locally by a certain relationship with society. Andrew Feenberg, a central thinker in the philosophy of technology, argued that democratizing technology means expanding technological design to include alternative interests and values. When successful in doing so, this can be a tool for increasing inclusiveness. This also suggests an important participatory role for consumers if technology is to be truly democratic. Feenberg asserts that this must be achieved by consumer intervention in a liberated design process. Improved access to specialized knowledge and tools has been associated with an increase in the "do it yourself" (DIY) trend. This has also been associated with consumerization, whereby personal or privately owned devices and software are also used for business purposes. Some have argued that this is linked to reduced dependence on traditional information technology departments. Astra Taylor, the author of the book The People's Platform: Taking Back Power and Culture in the Digital Age, argues, "The promotion of Internet-enabled amateurism is a lazy substitute for real equality of opportunity." === Industry impact === In some ways, democratization of technology has strengthened this industry. Markets have broadened and diversified. Consumer feedback and input is available at a very low or no cost. However, related industries are experiencing decreased demand for qualified professionals as consumers are able to fill more of their demands themselves. Users of a range of types and status have access to increasingly similar technology. Because of the decreased costs and expertise necessary to use products and software, professionals (e.g. in the audio industry) may experience loss of work. In some cases, technology is accessible but sufficiently complex that most users without specialized training are able to operate it without necessarily understanding how it works. Additionally, the process of consumerization has led to an influx in the number of devices in businesses and accessing private networks that IT departments cannot control or access. While this can lead to lowered operating costs and increased innovation, it is also associated with security concerns that most businesses are unable to address at the pace of the spread of technology. === Political impact === Some scholars have argued that technological change will bring about a third wave of democracy. The Internet has been recognized for its role in promoting increased citizen advocacy and government transparency. Jesse Chen, a leading thinker in democratic engagement technologies, distinguishes the democratizing effects of technology from democracy itself. Chen has argued that, while the Internet may have democratizing effects, the Internet alone cannot deliver democracy at all levels of society unless technologies are purposely designed for the nuances of democracy, specifically the engagement of large groups of people in between elections in and beyond government. The spread of the Internet and other forms of technology has led to increased global connectivity. Many scholars believe that it has been associated in the developing world not only with increased Western influence, but also with the spread of democracy through increased communication, efficiency, and access to information. Scholars have drawn associations between the level of technological connectedness and democracy in many nations. Technology can enhance democracy in the developed world as well. In addition to increased communication and transparency, some electorates have implemented online voting to accommodate an increased number of citizens.
Solid-state electronics
Solid-state electronics are semiconductor electronics: electronic equipment that use semiconductor devices such as transistors, diodes and integrated circuits (ICs). The term is also used as an adjective for devices in which semiconductor electronics that have no moving parts replace devices with moving parts, such as the solid-state relay, in which transistor switches are used in place of a moving-arm electromechanical relay, or the solid-state drive (SSD), a type of semiconductor memory used in computers to replace hard disk drives, which store data on rotating disks. == History == The term solid-state became popular at the beginning of the semiconductor era in the 1960s to distinguish this new technology. A semiconductor device works by controlling an electric current consisting of electrons or holes moving within a solid crystalline piece of semiconducting material such as silicon, while the thermionic vacuum tubes it replaced worked by controlling a current of electrons or ions in a vacuum within a sealed tube. Although the first solid-state electronic device was the cat's whisker detector, a crude semiconductor diode invented around 1904, solid-state electronics started with the invention of the transistor in 1947. Before that, all electronic equipment used vacuum tubes, because vacuum tubes were the only electronic components that could amplify—an essential capability in all electronics. The transistor, which was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Laboratories in 1947, could also amplify, and replaced vacuum tubes. The first transistor hi-fi system was developed by engineers at GE and demonstrated at the University of Philadelphia in 1955. In terms of commercial production, The Fisher TR-1 was the first "all transistor" preamplifier, which became available mid-1956. In 1961, a company named Transis-tronics released a solid-state amplifier, the TEC S-15. The replacement of bulky, fragile, energy-hungry vacuum tubes by transistors in the 1960s and 1970s created a revolution not just in technology but in people's habits, making possible the first truly portable consumer electronics such as the transistor radio, cassette tape player, walkie-talkie and quartz watch, as well as the first practical computers and mobile phones. Other examples of solid state electronic devices are the microprocessor chip, LED lamp, solar cell, charge coupled device (CCD) image sensor used in cameras, and semiconductor laser. Also during the 1960s and 1970s, television set manufacturers switched from vacuum tubes to semiconductors, and advertised sets as "100% solid state" even though the cathode-ray tube (CRT) was still a vacuum tube. It meant only the chassis was 100% solid-state, not including the CRT. Early advertisements spelled out this distinction, but later advertisements assumed the audience had already been educated about it and shortened it to just "100% solid state". LED displays can be said to be truly 100% solid-state.
Watcher Entertainment
Watcher Entertainment is an American digital media and entertainment company, founded by Steven Lim, Shane Madej, and Ryan Bergara. The channel features a variety of comedy, paranormal, gaming, cooking, and educational shows – typically hosted by Madej and Bergara. The Watcher main channel has over 400 million views and 2.9 million subscribers. The company launched their own streaming service, WatcherTV, in 2024. == History == === Buzzfeed and the creation of Watcher Entertainment (2019) === Madej, Bergara, and Lim met while working at the digital media company BuzzFeed. Madej and Bergara were co-hosts of the popular true crime and paranormal series Buzzfeed Unsolved and Lim was the creator and co-host of the popular internet food series Worth It. Both shows generated a combined 2 billion views with 15 billion minutes watched, making them two of the most successful shows on Buzzfeed. In 2019, Madej, Bergara, and Lim quit Buzzfeed as full-time employees. They each stayed on as contracted employees to complete their respective shows. The trio credited their departure to their desire to found a company with more "creative opportunities" and the ability to have "actual ownership of the content" made. The company is majority-owned by the trio. They received funding from Neuro, a caffeinated energy gum company; Boba Guys, a bubble-milk tea chain; and Steve Chen, a YouTube co-founder. Watcher Entertainment gained its name from the infamous true crime case of The Westfield Watcher, which Madej and Bergara had covered in a Buzzfeed Unsolved episode. The trio began the company as co-CEOs; however, Bergara and Madej stepped down from the role in 2023 to focus on content creation. === Watcher Entertainment (2020–present) === Watcher Entertainment was launched in January 2020. The company debuted with seven series and a weekly interactive talk show: Homemade, Grocery Run, Weird Wonderful World, Puppet History, Tourist Trapped, Top 5 Beatdown, Spooky Small Talk, and Watcher Weekly. The channel reached over 300,000 subscribers within the first month of launching. They were signed by talent agency CAA in the same year. Puppet History, a comedy educational game show, quickly became a success and gained a significant audience. The show, which stars Madej as a fluffy blue puppet, has spanned seven seasons and led to the creation of a variety of merchandise. It has featured a variety of guest stars on every episode, including other former Buzzfeed employees. The company premiered its first horror series in July 2020 with Are You Scared?. Following the end of Buzzfeed Unsolved: Supernatural in 2021, the studio premiered its highly anticipated successor, Ghost Files, just months after. The show followed a similar format, with Bergara and Madej investigating reportedly haunted locations and attempting to find evidence of the paranormal. The show had significant success, with critics noting the improved production value and design from its predecessor. In 2023, Bergara and Madej went on a tour across the United States to premiere episodes of the second season. The series was renewed for a third season, which they premiered with a United Kingdom tour in 2024. That year, Watcher premiered a light-hearted successor to the graphic Buzzfeed Unsolved: True Crime, with Mystery Files. In this rendition, Bergara or Madej present unusual crime or supernatural mysteries with a collection of theoretical solutions. The show was met with great success by audiences and was quickly renewed for a second season. Watcher launched a second channel, 'WatcherPodcasts,' in October 2023. The channel features podcasts hosted by Lim, Bergara, and Madej. On April 19, 2024, the company launched its Watcher streaming service. Going forward, all of their content would be released exclusively on the service and the company planned to transition away from YouTube. This announcement was met with overwhelmingly negative reactions from their fans, with many calling for the company to reverse the decision. Additionally, their YouTube channel lost over 50,000 subscribers in the day following the announcement. On April 22, 2024, the company issued an apology and changed their decision, stating that episodes would instead be released on the streaming service a month before their premiere on YouTube. In May 2025, the channel 'Andrew, Steven, and Adam' was launched as a subsidiary of Watcher with the release of the second season of Travel Season. Travel Season is a spiritual successor to Worth It with the same cast of Lim, Andrew Ilnyckyj, and Adam Bianchi. The channel focuses on food reviews and the behind of the scenes of making it. The main channel is now set to be focused primarily on horror, creepy, and paranormal content. == Channels and shows == === Watcher === ==== Current shows ==== Puppet History (2020–present) A whimsical puppet host walks through history's wildest tales as two guests compete for the title of history wizard. Making Watcher (2020–present) What happens when 3 creators with no business experience decide to make their own company? A multi-series documentary on the journey of creating Watcher Entertainment. Weird Wonderful World (2020–present) Curious pals Madej and Bergara explore lesser-known destinations and the fascinating subcultures within them. Too Many Spirits (2020–present) Bergara and Madej read and rate audience-submitted ghost stories, while getting progressively more tipsy drinking cocktails prepared by Steven and Ricky Wang. Top 5 Beatdown (2020–present) Bergara and Madej compare asinine top 5 lists with a topical expert, inspiring surprisingly heated debate. Are You Scared? (2020–2022, 2024–present) Bergara reads the internet's scariest stories (some true, some false) to his pal Madej as they try to figure out if the story is experienced or imagined. Ghost Files (2021–present) Bergara and Madej investigate haunted locations to discover whether something paranormal really lies within. Mystery Files (2023–present) Bergara and Madej present unusual crime or supernatural mysteries with a collection of theoretical solutions. Survival Mode (2023–present) Bergara and Madej play a variety of horror games and give a spooky review. ==== Former shows ==== Grocery Run (2020) Madej interviews a celeb on their typical grocery run, before returning to their home to help prepare their signature dish. Homemade (2020) Lim examines popular food by comparing an elevated restaurant experience vs. a home-cooked experience. Spooky Small Talk (2020) Bergara interviews celebs in a haunted house, exposing their fears and if they can manage it, a little about themselves too. Social Distancing D&D (2020) Socially Distance along with the motley gang of Watchers as they embark on a great quest of Dungeons and Dragons! Tourist Trapped (2020) Begara and Madej battle for tour guide supremacy, highlighting the two sides of a city, tourist attractions and hidden gems. Watcher Weekly (2020–2021) Lim, Bergara, and Madej chat the week's content and answer questions, with the occasional musical guest! Dish Granted (2021–2022) A show where host and amateur home cook Lim attempts to create the most extravagant dishes for his friends. Pretty Historic (2022) Selorm and guests explore beauty and fashion trends from history, try them, and decide whether the trends should remain in the past or come to the present. Worth a Shot (2022–2023) Take a seat at a Master Mixologist's bar as pro Ricky Wang crafts the unbelievable into a digestible drink for his guests. === Watcher Podcast === ==== Current shows ==== Get Scared with Shane, Ryan, and Steven (2023–2025) Previously named 'Pod Watcher' Madej, Bergara, and Lim host a weekly podcasts, exploring a variety of topics and answering viewer questions. Guests occasionally appear to replace one host. Matt Real serves as the producer and a fourth voice for the podcast. For Your Amusement (2023–present) Bergara explores a variety of topics surrounding theme parks. === Andrew, Steven, and Adam === Travel Season (2024–present) Lim reunites with Worth It costars Andrew Ilnyckyj and Adam Bianchi in a new food review show. == Awards and nominations ==
Artificial Inventor Project
The Artificial Inventor Project (AIP) is a global legal initiative headed by Professor Ryan Abbott dedicated to pursuing intellectual property (IP) rights for inventions and creative works generated autonomously by artificial intelligence (AI) systems without traditional human inventorship or authorship. The project coordinates a series of pro bono test cases worldwide, aiming to prompt law reform and public debate on how IP law should accommodate non-human creators. == History == In 2019, AIP filed patent applications in multiple jurisdictions, including the United States, United Kingdom, European Patent Office, Australia, Switzerland, and South Africa, naming the AI system DABUS (Device for the Autonomous Bootstrapping of Unified Sentience), created by Stephen Thaler, as the inventor. The aim was to challenge legal norms that require inventors to be natural persons and highlight pressing policy questions about AI-generated innovation and IP regimes. == Legal proceedings by jurisdiction == === Australia === In July 2021, a Federal Court of Australia judge (Beach J) ruled that AI can be considered an inventor under the Patents Act 1990, ordering IP Australia to reinstate the relevant patent. However, the full court then overturned this ruling on appeal and denied further review. === European Patent Office === The EPO Board of Appeal determined in 2022 that only a human inventor may be named, rendering DABUS‑based applications unacceptable. === South Africa === In 2021, a patent was granted listing DABUS as the inventor. As South Africa’s procedural system does not involve substantive inventorship review, the grant proceeded on formal grounds alone. === Switzerland === On 26 June 2025, the Swiss Federal Administrative Court ruled that artificial intelligence systems such as DABUS cannot be listed as inventors on patent applications. The court upheld the existing practice of the Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property (IPI), affirming that only natural persons may be recognized as inventors under Swiss patent law. === United Kingdom === In December 2023, the UK Supreme Court unanimously held that AI systems cannot be legally recognized as inventors, affirming that "an inventor must be a person" under current British law. === United States === In Thaler v. Hirshfeld (2021), a U.S. federal court agreed with the USPTO that inventors must be natural persons, rejecting the DABUS application and setting a precedent consistent with existing statute and administrative policy. == Criticism and impact == The project has fueled substantial discourse. Critics caution that allowing AI inventorship may complicate notions of accountability and ownership. Proponents argue that legal recognition must evolve to avoid disincentivizing innovation produced by AI and to maintain honesty about the true source of invention.
DVD
DVD (digital video disc or digital versatile disc) is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was invented and developed in 1995 and first released on November 1, 1996, in Japan. The medium can store any kind of digital data and has been widely used to store video programs (watched using DVD players), software and other computer files. DVDs offer significantly higher storage capacity than compact discs (CD) while having the same dimensions. A standard single-layer DVD can store up to 4.7 GB of data, a dual-layer DVD up to 8.5 GB. Dual-layer, double-sided DVDs can store up to a maximum of 17.08 GB. Prerecorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp data onto the DVD. Such discs are a form of DVD-ROM because data can only be read and not written or erased. Blank recordable DVD discs (DVD-R and DVD+R) can be recorded once using a DVD recorder and then function as a DVD-ROM. Rewritable DVDs (DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM) can be recorded and erased many times. DVDs are used in DVD-Video consumer digital video format and less commonly in DVD-Audio consumer digital audio format, as well as for authoring DVD discs written in a special AVCHD format to hold high definition material (often in conjunction with AVCHD format camcorders). DVDs containing other types of information may be referred to as DVD data discs. == Etymology == The Oxford English Dictionary comments that, "In 1995, rival manufacturers of the product initially named digital video disc agreed that, in order to emphasize the flexibility of the format for multimedia applications, the preferred abbreviation DVD would be understood to denote digital versatile disc." The OED also states that in 1995, "The companies said the official name of the format will simply be DVD. Toshiba had been using the name 'digital video disc', but that was switched to 'digital versatile disc' after computer companies complained that it left out their applications." "Digital versatile disc" is the explanation provided in a DVD Forum Primer from 2000 and in the DVD Forum's mission statement, which the purpose is to promote broad acceptance of DVD products on technology, across entertainment, and other industries. Because DVDs became highly popular for the distribution of movies in the 2000s, the term DVD became popularly used in English as a noun to describe specifically a full-length movie released on the format; for example the phrase "to watch a DVD" describes watching a movie on DVD. == History == === Development and launch === Released in 1987, CD Video used analog video encoding on optical discs matching the established standard 120 mm (4.7 in) size of audio CDs. Video CD (VCD) became one of the first formats for distributing digitally encoded films in this format, in 1993. In the same year, two new optical disc storage formats were being developed. One was the Multimedia Compact Disc (MMCD), backed by Philips and Sony (developers of the CD and CD-i), and the other was the Super Density (SD) disc, supported by Toshiba, Time Warner, Matsushita Electric, Hitachi, Mitsubishi Electric, Pioneer, Thomson, and JVC. By the time of the press launches for both formats in January 1995, the MMCD nomenclature had been dropped, and Philips and Sony were referring to their format as Digital Video Disc (DVD). On May 3, 1995, an ad hoc industry technical group formed from five computer companies (IBM, Apple, Compaq, Hewlett-Packard, and Microsoft) issued a press release stating that they would only accept a single format. The group voted to boycott both formats unless the two camps agreed on a single, converged standard. They recruited Lou Gerstner, president of IBM, to pressure the executives of the warring factions. In one significant compromise, the MMCD and SD groups agreed to adopt proposal SD 9, which specified that both layers of the dual-layered disc be read from the same side—instead of proposal SD 10, which would have created a two-sided disc that users would have to turn over. Philips/Sony strongly insisted on the source code, EFMPlus, that Kees Schouhamer Immink had designed for the MMCD, because it makes it possible to apply the existing CD servo technology. Its drawback was a loss from 5 to 4.7 Gigabytes of capacity. As a result, the DVD specification provided a storage capacity of 4.7 GB (4.38 GiB) for a single-layered, single-sided disc and 8.5 GB (7.92 GiB) for a dual-layered, single-sided disc. The DVD specification ended up similar to Toshiba and Matsushita's Super Density Disc, except for the dual-layer option. MMCD was single-sided and optionally dual-layer, whereas SD was two half-thickness, single-layer discs which were pressed separately and then glued together to form a double-sided disc. Philips and Sony decided that it was in their best interests to end the format war, and on September 15, 1995 agreed to unify with companies backing the Super Density Disc to release a single format, with technologies from both. After other compromises between MMCD and SD, the group of computer companies won the day, and a single format was agreed upon. The computer companies also collaborated with the Optical Storage Technology Association (OSTA) on the use of their implementation of the ISO-13346 file system (known as Universal Disk Format) for use on the new DVDs. The format's details were finalized on December 8, 1995. In November 1995, Samsung announced it would start mass-producing DVDs by September 1996. The format launched on November 1, 1996, in Japan, mostly with music video releases. The first major releases from Warner Home Video arrived on December 20, 1996, with four titles being available. The format's release in the U.S. was delayed multiple times, from August 1996, to October 1996, November 1996, before finally settling on early 1997. Players began to be produced domestically that winter, with March 24, 1997, as the U.S. launch date of the format proper in seven test markets. Approximately 32 titles were available on launch day, mainly from the Warner Bros., MGM, and New Line libraries, with the notable inclusion of the 1996 film Twister. However, the launch was planned for the following day (March 25), leading to a distribution change with retailers and studios to prevent similar violations of breaking the street date. The nationwide rollout for the format happened on August 22, 1997. DTS announced in late 1997 that they would be coming onto the format. The sound system company revealed details in a November 1997 online interview, and clarified it would release discs in early 1998. However, this date would be pushed back several times before finally releasing their first titles at the 1999 Consumer Electronics Show. In 2001, blank DVD recordable discs cost the equivalent of $27.34 US dollars in 2022. === Adoption === Movie and home entertainment distributors adopted the DVD format to replace the ubiquitous VHS tape as the primary consumer video distribution format. Immediately following the formal adoption of a unified standard for DVD, two of the four leading video game console companies (Sega and The 3DO Company) said they already had plans to design a gaming console with DVDs as the source medium. Sony stated at the time that they had no plans to use DVD in their gaming systems, despite being one of the developers of the DVD format and eventually the first company to actually release a DVD-based console. Game consoles such as the PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Xbox 360 use DVDs as their source medium for games and other software. Contemporary games for Windows were also distributed on DVD. Early DVDs were mastered using DLT tape, but using DVD-R DL or +R DL eventually became common. TV DVD combos, combining a standard definition CRT TV or an HD flat panel TV with a DVD mechanism under the CRT or on the back of the flat panel, and VCR/DVD combos were also available for purchase. For consumers, DVD soon overtook VHS as the favored choice for home movie releases. In 2001, DVD players outsold VCRs for the first time in the United States. At that time, one in four American households owned a DVD player. By 2007, about 80% of Americans owned a DVD player, a figure that had surpassed VCRs; it was also higher than personal computers or cable television. == Specifications == The DVD specifications created and updated by the DVD Forum are published as so-called DVD Books (e.g. DVD-ROM Book, DVD-Audio Book, DVD-Video Book, DVD-R Book, DVD-RW Book, DVD-RAM Book, DVD-AR (Audio Recording) Book, DVD-VR (Video Recording) Book, etc.). DVD discs are made up of two discs; normally one is blank, and the other contains data. Each disc is 0.6 mm thick, and they are glued together to form a DVD disc. The gluing process must be done carefully to make the disc as flat as possible to avoid both birefringence and "disc tilt", which is when the disc is not perfectly flat, preventing it from being read. Some specifications for mechanical, physical and optical characteristics of DV